Zara Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Zara - Essay Example In order to evaluate the changes in the retail clothing industry and the position of Zara, an analysis of the external environment has been carried out with the help of five forces as described below. The forces which are favourable for Zara are attractive for their future prospects whereas the forces which are less attractive poses threat to the business of Zara. There other three major external forces that have substantial impact on the business of activities of Zara. These are social factors, technological factors and economic factors. In case of social factors, changing trend of people’s choices and preferences about their clothing and apparels is one of the major issues. The company has to keep high focus on this trend so that they can come up with new designs according to the new trend in the market. In case of technological factor, most important issue to look on is adoption and use of advanced technology i.e. hi-tech machineries and techniques of production and designi ng of clothes and apparels. In case of economic factor, the volatile economy of every developed and developing market is one of the major issues to look on. This factor has high impact on price of raw materials, operating cost of the company and lastly the price of finished products. External Environment analysis of Zara (Porter’s Five Forces Analysis) Competitive rivalry in the industry The retail market in the clothing industry is highly competitive due to the presence of the Big 4 in the apparel industry, namely Zara, The Gap, Benetton and the H&M. All these companies have adopted the strategy of expanding in the global markets which has been reflected in the tight competition for market share (OaShaughnessy 57). The financial performance of Zara in 2011 denotes that the company has performed exceedingly well as compared to its competitors. The profits of Zara have increased by 12% whereas the profits of Benetton, The Gap, and H&M have changed by only 1%. The competitive s uccess for Zara is an attractive external force for Zara which has been attained due to its responsive marketing, efficient supply chain and human resource management. Threat of new entrants The retail clothing industry is highly competitive with the increasing presence of clothing companies at the regional, national as well as in the global level. The new players are also targeting the apparel industry due to the shift towards the online mode of business. Although there is threat of new entrants, Zara is comfortable in the short term as the company has developed a brand image in the international marke

Pennsylvania near Essay Example for Free

Pennsylvania near Essay Mining has been going on for a quite a long time in the whole world. It is worth noting that quarrying is an activity which is primarily aimed at extracting materials such as granite, limestone, slate and clay for various construction uses. On the same note, quarrying in Bangor has been done for more than a hundreds years due to the existence of karts topology. Bangor is located in eastern part of Pennsylvania near Pocono Mountains and West of Delaware Water Gap. It bears noting that Karts topology which has dominated this area is formed on limestone rocks by dissolution, includes underground streams, caves and beautiful sceneries (Langer, 2001). All these sceneries have been destroyed by quarrying impacts such as air pollution, noise pollution, and damage to biodiversity, land disturbance and heavy metal / toxins release. The neighborhood has for along time experienced a lot of difficulties in dealing with these impacts which are controllable though have far reaching effects.   Quarrying of Carbonate and other Rocks Since smaller and regular shaped stone products are required, large blocks of stone are extracted to provide a room for modifications. According to Langer (2001) a block of stone is cut from the bedrock mass by separating the block on all vertical sides then undercut the block or break the block away from the bedrock mass (p. 6). The major methods of quarrying are channel cutting and drilling and broaching. In channel cutting a multiple chisel-edged channeling machine cuts a rock into bars while in case of drilling and broaching method, a drilling machine drills many deep holes in a coordinated pattern (Langer, 2001). A broaching tool is then used to curve and chops the gaps between the drill holes which free the required block from the underlying bedrock mass (Langer, 2001). It is a requirement that the cutting be frequently sharpened for effectiveness Line drilling and blasting are the most modern methods used in quarrying in areas of Bangor. Line drilling involves the drilling holes in an overlapping manner and then sewing the stone using a wire saw or a chain saw (Langer, 2001). Blasting generally applies the use of explosives which break the stone blocks and produce small stones for crushing. This therefore implies that blasting cannot be applied in quarry when a certain shape of rock is desired (Langer, 2001). Quarrying affects the surrounding area and the immediate wildlife with numerous environmental damages. 3. 0 Air pollution All forms quarrying are capable of releasing dust which pollutes the air. Drilling and blasting are known to produce the most of the dust that affect the surrounding air (Langer, 2001). Clearing the forest or vegetation cover can also produce a considerable amount of dust. Another source of dust production is during the removal of soil cover for development of the quarry. Some of environmental factors that affect the concentration of dust include local microclimate condition, the dust particle size and the chemistry of the dust itself (Langer, 2001). Take for example a quarry like Capozzolo Slate Company which produces highly alkaline and reactive dusts from its mines and factory (Langer, 2001). If a coal mine is taken as a point of consideration, it produces a lot of heavy acidic dust. Air pollution from quarry dust becomes a nuisance over time since it deposits a heavy layer on plants and other surfaces it comes into contact with. It has far reaching effects on health of individuals by causing respiratory complications and eye problems. With respect to plants, dust coat causes the blockage of their internal structures which leads to and damaging of leaves and their cuticles (Langer, 2001). The long term survival of the plant is generally interfered with by the dust. 4. 0 Noise pollution Noise pollution develops from quarrying activities which start from the land clearance to the transportation of the final product of the quarry (Langer, 2001). The initial activities that produce noise pollution include those that are aimed at establishing access roads and rail connection, the quarry compound and also stone processing facility. The following procedure of exposing the stone mass to be extracted by removing all top soil using earth movers produces a lot of noise. In addition, the use of hydraulic excavators produces noise. Likewise, the drilling machines and blasting activities equally produce very loud noise (Langer, 2001). During the transportation of final product using heavy and powerful machines, truck traffic contributes to the production of noise (Langer, 2001). Additionally, the processing facility produces a lot of noise since crushing requires a lot of power. Consequently, the noise affects the surrounding wildlife and humans. 5. 0 Damage to biodiversity The major negative impacts of quarrying on the entire environment have been damage to biodiversity. Biodiversity basically refers to a wide range of living creatures, including mammals, fish, insects, invertebrates, reptiles, birds, plants, and micro-organisms (Langer, 2001). Quarrying destroys the ecosystem and all the species that are support. Moreover, the ecosystems are not only destroyed by the direct removal of the whole ecosystem but also indirectly by affecting and damaging related environment condition of the entire place (Langer, 2001). There are changes to underground water and surface water which cause many ecosystems to dry up while some experience flooding. Besides, the quality of water flowing downstream is compromised by the quarrying activities. On the same note, the water which comes into contact with the quarry by products is hard to purify since it cannot be filtered. Underground water is the most affected if quarrying activities interfere with the sinkholes by causing them to collapse. Ground-water pumping causes change of the flow of surface water. The large amounts of soil carried to the rivers cause result in a lot of silt deposits that pollute water systems thus killing animals. Quarrying in the Bangor zone has resulted increase of water runoff to some parts while other parts have been experiencing reduced water quality. Generally, quarrying causes the lowering of the ground water table by forcing it to go under the rock interface (Langer, 2001). The pumping of water out of the quarry may lead to high fluctuation of water ground water levels which may lead to drying up of the surrounding underground water systems. 6. 0 Land disturbance The land terrain is largely affected by the excavation activities and the damping of the waste soil. In to the bargain is the fact that the activities of making new rail line and roads cause a lot of soil movement which affects the natural terrain of the ground (Langer, 2001). Moreover, the land which is left after quarrying has stopped cannot be used economically through agricultural or commercial activities. 7. 0 Quarry Waste Just like many of the man-made mining activities, quarrying engages the production of considerable large amounts of wastes (Langer, 2001). A few quarries produce small amounts of permanent waste products with examples of sand and gravel quarries while others produce a large amount of waste material which includes clay and silt (Langer, 2001). The quarry wastes does note pose a big dander to the environment though it still have the potential for damage to the environment by contaminating any water that it comes into contact with. The quarry leaves permanent scars and massive footprints in landscapes (Langer, 2001). The abandoning of the quarry site leaves Lange trunks of landmass unsuitable for other uses. 8. 0 Heavy metal and toxins release Quarrying may release a lot of heavy metal and toxins to the environment that affect people’s health negatively and cause far reaching impacts on the surrounding ecosystem if it is conducted in areas that have harmful minerals (Langer, 2001). The release of harmful materials such as silica which is found in rocks enters the lungs , thus causing silicosis which is deadly as it can rip off the lungs. This may happen when little fragments silica rise as part of dust which is later breathed in through the nose. Another common effect of toxins is experienced when toxins are suspected to have been sipped in the water, which may lead an entire neighbourhood to go far away for search of clean and pure water. 9. 0 Recommendations The first measures to curb air pollution from quarrying activities should focus on the developing a forest cover that can contain the dust (Urich, 2002). Forest would help in increasing percolation and preventing soil erosion due to pumping of water out of the quarry site. Watering the roads that are used by the transporting track is also very useful (Urich, 2002). The quarry operations should be controlled in order to minimize the emission of the heavy dust by using modern technologies such as sawing instead of blasting stones. Land geo-morphological condition should be improved by an importation of other materials to fill the huge holes so as to return the natural ecology. Authorities in Bangor have made a mandatory that a reclamation guide line be included with each application for any quarrying permit (Langer, 2001). Contamination that occur through using abandoned quarry as dumping site can be voided by filling the quarry with soil that is free from any contamination. Moreover, water conservation measures can be applied by constructing stop dams and ponds that act as ground-water recharging sites (Langer, 2001). The surface run-off water is held back and all suspended solids are allowed to sink before entering the hydrological system. Controlling the soil erosion entry to streams by stabilization of exposed soil surface can be achieved by initiating vegetation cover growth on steep sides. Noise pollution can be reduced if the trucks traffic uses well designed road rail network. Better methods of stone extraction should be applied to avoid the production of noise pollution which people associate with quarrying activities. The damage to biodiversity can be lessened by a careful use of machines to avoid affecting a large portion of ecosystem. Land rehabilitation should follow immediately after the quarrying activities are completed (Langer, 2001). The quarry waste should be returned to the exposed hole before leaving the mining site. Finally, water that is drawn from the quarry should not be allowed into streams before its toxic levels being determined and ascertained that the levels are not dangerous. When all these are put into practice, then, the levels of pollution will greatly decrease. References Langer, W. H. (2001). potential Environmental Impacts Of Quarrying Stone in Karst- A leterature review. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from US Geological Survey web: http//geology. cr. usgs. go. gov/pub/ofrs/OFR-01-0484 Urich, P. B. (2002). Land Use in Karst Terrain: Review of Primary Activities on Temperate Karst Ecosystems. Science for conservation (198). Map of Bangor mine Source: http://wa. water. usgs. gov/projects/bangor/maps. htm Direct data from the USGS website with statistics and status of Bangor Limestone Bangor Limestone State Alabama Original map label Mb Province Interior Low Plateaus Province Name Bangor Limestone Age Mississippian Description Bangor Limestone Medium-gray bioclastic and oolitic limestone, containing interbeds of dusky-red and olive-green mudstone in the upper part. Map references Szabo, M. W. , Osborne, E. W. , Copeland, C. W. Jr. , Neathery; T. L. , 1988, Geologic Map of Alabama, Geological Survey of Alabama Special Map 220, scale 1:250,000. Primary rock type limestone Secondary rock type mudstone Unit references Szabo, M. W. , Osborne, E. W. , Copeland, C. W. Jr. , Neathery; T. L. , 1988, Geologic Map of Alabama, Geological Survey of Alabama Special Map 220, scale 1:250,000. Source: http://tin. er. usgs. gov/geology/state/sgmc-unit. php? unit=ALMb%3B2

Love and Hate :: Essays Papers

Love and Hate Setting This story was about 2 boys (Bryon and Mark). Bryon was the oldest. He was sixteen and Mark was 15. They both got into alot of trouble. They enjoyed fighting, and they were pool hustlers. Mark had moved in with Bryon and his mother when he was little. His parents had gotten into a fight and shot each other. Plot Structure I believe this story was a man versus himself, because all through the book Bryon was constantly changing. He and Mark started to grow apart. He started to fall in love with a girl. He also had to deal with turning his best friend/brother into the police. He had to learn to forgive himself. Towards the end Bryon turned Mark into the police. He had found drugs under Mark's mattress. Mark had been bringing home money and Bryon finally found out where it was coming from. Mark had been selling drugs. Bryon did not know what to do thus, he called the police. When Mark came home and Bryon told him, Mark was shocked. In court Mark would not even look at Bryon and when Bryon went to see him Mark said that he hated him. Plot Summary Bryon and Mark were friends/brothers. Mark moved in with them when he was 9. His parents had gotten into a fight and ended up shooting each other. Mark and Bryon did everything together. They were big pool hustlers. They would go into Charlie's bar and find someone to play pool with. Then they would end up with all his money. Bryon was friends with Charlie. That's how they were able to go into the bar. Bryon was 16 and Mark was 15. They both loved getting into fights. One day they were walking with M&M,a thirteen year old who loved M&M's. When three guys tried to jump M&M. M&M did not like to fight thus, Mark and Bryon stopped it. Bryon and Mark went to visit Bryon's mother in the hospital. She told them about a boy, Mike, across the hall who never had any visitors. Thus she asked them to go see him. bryon did not want to thus, he went to the snack bar and he saw a girl he knew.

Essay --

Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whatever the party shall have not been thoroughly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to the jurisdiction. This is the 13th amendment. Now we may ask ourselves as a country, what does this mean for us? Well to me, this is probably the most powerful thing that I've ever heard. This is just deeper than words on a paper, this, this text right here is the reason why I am able to stand here and talk to you today. January 31, 1865, a day and what's a beautiful piece of work was created. 1856, Dreed Scott v. Sandford a case in which an enslaved African American wrote a petition to the Supreme Court asking for his freedom. Did he win? Of course not, its 1856. The Supreme Court ruled against him as well as saying that the Bill of Rights did not apply to African Americans. Let me read to you what the Constitution has to say about racism and segregation. â€Å"_____________† Oh thats right, it doesn’t. Until 1865, people who were not straight white males were not considered to be human beings. â€Å"Those who deny freedom to others, deserve it not for themselves; and, under a just God, can not long retain it.† Abraham Lincoln 1858. A wise man, with wise words explaining that no man nor woman created by â€Å"THE CREATOR† should deny freedom to a person or persons because we would not want to have our freedom to be denied by others. African-Americans as well as many other nonwhite Americans did not have the rights to vote in wrongful aggression of slavery, and have many other opportunities and careers such as the whites. To be seen as American and not as interfere work to be uses labor. It is important to learn these things, because we can know a... ...something greater than we think it is. We, as a community must stop with the verbal abuse, to not only to the African Americans, but to any of us that may be different from ourselves. Stop the vulgar comments and â€Å"wisecracks† in which we think that is funny is really a dull unsharpened arrow piercing the heart of an innocent human being just like yourself. Can I ask you something? Do we make jokes about Holocaust? Do we make violent slurs about 9/11? So why should racism be treated any differently? The only way to end this, is one person at a time. Looking at themselves and making an obligation to their heart saying that no longer will I exploit the insurreties of an individual. No longer will I put myself and my selfish desires over other’s feelings and emotions. Are we ready to grow and mature as a nation as a community, as a civilization? Or, maybe its just me.

Biocon †Case Assignment Questions Essay

1. Assuming Biocon receives approval for BIOMAb, should it launch the drug immediately or conduct phase 3 trials before launch? Elaborate the various elements of your action plan. If Biocon receives approval for BIOMAb, the management team will need to carefully consider what the best course of action is moving forward. If the company elects to launch the drug immediately, they will be able to have the first mover advantage, reaching the market before their closest competitor, Erbitux. BIOMAb will also be able to put themselves on the map as they would be the first ever, proprietary drug developed and marked by an Indian firm for Indian patients. The Indian regulatory authorities may also cause a lengthy Phase 3 trial due to their lack of experience with bringing a proprietary drug to market, as evidenced during BIOMAb’s Phase 2 trials. However, even with all of the above listed considerations in mind, Biocon should conduct the phase 3 trials before launching the BIOMAb. BIOMA b is a superior product to Erbitux, as shown in the 100% response rate when combined with chemo and radiotherapy. There are also fewer side affects, a more patient friendly treatment plan, and BIOMAb will be able to offer the drug at a discounted price. Even if BIOMAb is not able to be the first drug to the market, they will be able to make up for those potential loses in the long run. BIOMAb will be entering this marketplace for the first time, and the company will want to enter the market with as strong of a message as possible. BIOMAb is entering this market for the long run, and overcoming any perceptions of shortcuts, lack of quality, or anything less than cutting edge will last well beyond the life of the BIOMAb product. There are only 300 oncologists in this market Biocon cannot afford to miss. While awaiting Phase 3 approval, Biocon can roll out its direct sales force, offering its suite of generic oncology drugs. This waiting period will give the sales force an opportunity to develop roots in the marketplace and to raise awareness of BIOMAb before it is even on the market. The Phase 3 approval process will serve as an advantageous ramp up time so that Biocon is fully prepared to enter the marketplace on better footing with BIOMAb. This time will also enable Biocon to better develop the infrastructure they will need to  optimize its direct distribution channel. Biocon is a new player in bringing a new drug to the market and they will want to ensure that the quality of their product is maintained from the manufacturing floor into the doctor’s office. Assuming that BIOMAb indeed loses its first mover advantage, its value proposition will be its results, which are dependent on properly controlled product. Biocon wants to become a permanent fixture in this market and the company needs to do everything in its power to deliver its value proposition of innovation, quality, and affordability. 1. How big is the current and future market opportunity in BIOMAb? The current market opportunity that Biocon is currently targeting with BIOMAb is composed of the Head and Neck cancer patients within India. More specifically, Biocon is focused, in the short term, on those Head and Neck cancer patients that can afford to pay, estimated at 1,900 patients. These patients will be the ones officially marketed to, but given the Indian’s markets preponderance for using drugs â€Å"off the label†, the unofficial market can be target at all cancer patients in India that currently able to afford treatment, 7,114 patients. Given India’s continued economic growth rate (9% annually) and ever expanding population base (1.4%), all of the preceding numbers are certain to grow in the relatively short term. The compounded impact of these different rates will cause these India based estimates to grow exponentially year over year. In the long run, BIOMAb in India is just the tip of the iceberg. CIMAB and Biocon’s current joint venture is to develop and market the molecule on the Indian subcontinent. If Biocon is able to thoroughly manage and develop all aspects of the supply chain (manufacturing, distribution, sales, marketing, etc), Biocon would have good reason to go back to the negotiating table with CIMAB. The success of CIMAB’s other partner, YM Bioscience, is not guaranteed and there is no reason that Biocon cannot unseat them in the long run. If Biocon is able to achieve this, along with the Phase 3 trials, the worldwide Head and Cancer would be open to the company, to say nothing for the â€Å"off label† prescriptions. Given the worldwide population growth, economic expansion, and aging populations, the long-term market for BIOMAb is practically limitless. 3. Who is the buyer for BIOMAb? What is the decision making unit in this case? What are the benefits that each member of the decision making unit seeks from BIOMAb? The buyer for BIOMAb is (are) the income provider(s) of the family, whose member (s) has (have) been affected by head and neck cancer or another indication, since off-label usage is very common in India. The structure of India’s health care system is such that it is estimated that 95% of BIOMAb’s patients (end users) are going to be self-paying. Therefore, the cost of treatment will be transferred to the earning member of the family. Adult patients have the right to make treatment decisions for themselves, so patients and their families are the decision makers for BIOMAb in this case. As the case states, the oncology doctors are the main influencers, as they diagnose and make ultimate recommendations to their patients as to how extensive the treatment should be. The benefits that each member of the decision making unit (i.e. patients and their families) seeks include BIOMAb’s effectiveness in the treatment of head and neck cancer in conjunction with radio and che motherapy, minimal side-effects (immediate side effects, as well as those that might be associated with long-term use), and drug’s affordability. Should phase-2 trials be conducted by Biocon for other indications, the patients will also want to seek same benefits from the drug for other types of cancer. Based on the information provided in the case, BIOMAb’s effectiveness and minimized side effects are a given. After all, phase-2 trials proved that the tumor was killed 100% of the time when the drug was used in combination with radio and chemotherapy. Moreover, unlike competition, BIOMAb did not produce skin rashes because due to the drug’s unique formula. An important factor will be affordability. Wealth distribution is very uneven in India, and 1/4 of the nation’s population earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of $0.40/day (Wikipedia). The patients, as well as their doctors, will want to make sure that they can afford to complete treatment to ensure best possible outcome. BIOMAb has a tremendous advantage in this category compared to Erbitux, as it calls for a definite (i.e. six-dose) treatment cycle; total treatment cost can thus be effectively quantified. Another benefit that  patients will be seeking is the ability of BIOMAb’s sales reps to educate them and their families. Although this is not one of the drug’s literal benefits, it will be a crucial factor since patients’ face time with doctors and specialists is very limited in India. Pre-educating end users and their families on the benefits, side effects, and other specifics of the drug will ensure that oncologists’ time with each patient is maximized. 4. Develop a detailed launch plan for BIOMAb. Provide your rationale for the product portfolio, pricing, channel, and communication decisions. Biocon’s launch of BIOMAb is complicated by several factors. The first of these is the lack of phase 3 clinical trials, which would theoretically provide more evidence of the drug’s efficacy and safety on a larger patient pool. This is complicated by the fact that BIOMAb’s competitor comes in the form of a drug called Erbitux, which does have phase 3 trials completed and global acclaim. Biocon’s fear is that if they do not launch before Erbitux, they will lose the first to market advantage they feel necessary to succeed. In this case Biocon should take the time to complete phase 3 clinical trials on the basis of what patients and their families expect from a cancer drug. It was already stated that Erbitux had worldwide acceptance due to having extensive trials not limited to head and neck cancer that proved it was b oth safe and effective. In the eyes of the consumer the single most important concern here is that the drugs are going to work and that death can be avoided. Being first to market has the risk of offering only a temporary advantage until Erbitux actually becomes available. At this point if phase 3 trials are finally completed and the results are not favorable there would be severe consumer backlash and possibly action from the government. Finally, Biocon mentioned being able to appeal to doctor’s via existing relationships in order to get their product sold. Realistically, doctors care more about clinical trials as a means of deciding what drugs to offer. By moving forward with phase 3 trials Biocon would have real data to give these doctor’s the â€Å"hard sell.† The strategy is not just to maximize profit, but build a sustainable brand built on trust and results in the pharmaceutical industry. Building upon that is the question of whether or not to sell generics in addition to BIOMAb and when to sell them. The argument given was that selling generics would give the sales force good experience and at the  same time build a solid revenue base. Biocon should indeed take this route for these very reasons. This will allow them to still bring in revenue while the phase 3 trials of BIOMAb take place. Once the trials are complete, selling them alongside BIOMAb will allow them to capture more of the market when in front of doctors who want to have offerings for price conscious patients. On top of the first two concerns is the issue of price and what impact it would have on both market size due to affordability and perceived quality in comparison to Erbitux. Biocon, after confirmation of the extraordinarily high effectiveness of BIOMAb should charge $6000-7000 per dose or rather whatever would be equivalent to a few steps more than Erbitux. Biocon’s CEO desires to build a brand not based on low price but rather the value provided by the products. The hindrance to this route of course is the Indian cultural perception of what the price should be and the fact that many people cannot afford such cost. However, Biocon is alread y well aware that their effective target market is small so for those people the price is potentially less important. However, Biocon can market the fact that it is a six dose treatment path rather than indefinite dosages like Erbitux so in the long term people save money. Additionally they can get creative here and offer something like Walmart’s layaway program. Patients can agree to pay in equal installments up until their dosing day. On that final day when payment is received they are administered the dose. Payments for the next dose begin and the cycle repeats until the dosage time. Additionally, Biocon is concerned about the sales methodology with regards to going through the usual channels of CFAs, wholesalers, and pharmacies or selling it directly to doctors. By going through the typical channels they have the advantage of reaching more doctors who have existing relationships with certain sellers. In this case though, it would fit more with their overarching strategy to sell direct. The higher cost of the drug would be less apparent when not being sold side by side with competitor drugs through a pharmacy or wholesaler. This would also allow Biocon to sell the generic drugs and BIOMAb side by side as a complete market solution for price conscious people. The savings from not having a middleman can be passed on to the doctors via multi-patient discounts or similar. Finally, the quality of the product could be ensured since BIOMAb requires such delicate handling. This is important for the Biocon brand image moving forward as  there can be no slip ups when it comes to delivering a product critical to treatment of cancer. The direct sales also tie in with overall marketing communication planning since Biocon would not only control distribution of the product, but also the sales communication. Biocon should take this time during sales to educate doctors on the results of the phase 3 trials and provide materials for patients that explain the availability of Biocon reps during their treatment cycles. Biocon reps, as mentioned in the case, should educate the patient on their product and provide other helpful cancer information and family services in the form of support group references, etc. 5. How has Biocon’s strategy and positioning evolved over the years? What role does BIOMAb play in Biocon’s overall strategy? Biocon’s strategy and positioning have greatly evolved over the years. The company started as an enzyme manufacturing company that exported its products from India to the United States and European food processing industry. During this time the company developed an expertise in various fermentation processes. The company soon realized that the global enzyme market was limited to about $1 billion and decided to change its strategy and position itself to compete in the biopharmaceutical market, which was a $10 billion dollar market that was rapidly approaching $80 billion. Biocon was positioned nicely to move into the space and compete in the generic drug sector. They were particularly positioned well to manufacture statins. Statins were a great fit for them because they were small molecules that were easy to manufacture and Biocon already p ossessed the technical capability to do so drawing on its strength in the fermentation process and enzyme manufacturing. This short-term strategy to enter the market focused on developing globally competitive processes that relied on their existing expertise to manufacture drugs whose patents were expiring. After successfully entering into the pharmaceutical market through statins, the company was ready to continue on a growth path and move on to their medium/long term phase by entering into larger molecules in the form of insulin. Again, Biocon identified a large and rapidly growing market where they saw their expertise in fermentation giving them an edge and ability to compete. The results were consistent with their  first direction change and they were again very successful gaining over 10% of the Indian insulin market share. During this phase of their strategy they partnered with Clinigene to conduct clinical trials comparing it to the market leaders. The current phase of Biocom’s strategy is to shift the company’s focus to the development of proprietary drugs. Management again saw that the market they were competing in would soon shrink due to the maturing of the Indian drug market and they would experience enormous price pressure as a result. Their vision for the company was to develop drugs that no other companies had yet succeeded in bringing to market, and in doing so reaping the benefits of the huge payoff. BIOMAb is the essence of the final and long-term stages of Biocon’s overall strategy. They are using their collaborative strategy to partner with CIMAB thus giving Biocon the opportunity to develop and market the molecule. This is a huge step towards the long-term goal of moving the company to a discovery and development focused biotech firm. BIOMAb is very important to this next phase of the company’s growth. In the past they have relied on their expertise and experience carrying over from the enzyme development background. However in this next phase they are entering into uncharted territory and as a result will need to prove they have the capability to adapt their expertise and continue to be successful in areas that are outside of their experience scope. The success of the BIOMAb phase of Biocon’s overall strategy will be key to the future of the company and could indicate that the strategy they have in place will continue to provide the growth and profitability they seek as a biotech firm.

The treaty of versailles essays

The treaty of versailles essays The Treaty of Versailles was an agreement signed by four people. They were Georges Clemeneau of France, David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Orlando of Italy and Woodrow Wilson on the U.S. The Treaty was constructed by Woodrow Wilson of the U.S. The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty that bought an end to World War I. It listed fourteen points that would cause peace between all the countries. Germany were not allowed to have their say about the treaty or share their opinions about it as they were blamed for the whole war even though it was not entirely their fault alone. They were blamed for the whole war as they surrendered. Many of the fourteen points of the treaty were against Germany and took away many of their rights as a country. This was very unfair towards Germany. The Treaty stated that Germany had to pay 6,600 million sterling to repair all the damage that the war had caused. This was unfair as Germany did not cause the war all by itself and should not have had to pay for it all the damage caused by the war. It also stated that many countries would become an independent country and would not be ruled by a bigger country which was fair. A fair point that was made on the treaty said that all wartime guns and weapons would be melted down. This was good as it meant there was an unlikely chance that another war would break out and anymore people getting injured. Germany was blamed for the whole war and causing it. This was wrong as it was not Germanys fault alone and many other countries had also helped start it and were to blame too, not just Germany. Many of the terms of the treaty were very harsh to Germany and gave them harsh punishments such as to limit the size of their army and to give up its empire. This was unfair because Germany did not deserve it as the war was not their fault so they should not have had to pay by limiting the s ...

Captain vs. Master

Captain vs. Master Captain vs. Master Captain vs. Master By Mark Nichol What’s the difference between a ship’s captain and a ship’s master? In contemporary usage, not much, but historically, the titles represented quite distinct roles. Captain is more common in modern usage, but master is more historically accurate. Captain derives ultimately from the Latin term caput, meaning â€Å"head† and related to other words beginning with cap- such as capital; capitaneus, meaning â€Å"chief,† and the French word capitaine, meaning â€Å"leader,† are the intermediate forms. Master, originating in the Latin word magis, meaning â€Å"more,† stems from magister, which also means â€Å"chief† as well as â€Å"director† or teacher.† In the Middle Ages, the man in charge of a ship, often but not always the owner, was called the master; this usage stems from imperial Rome. On the high seas, where delay or dissension could lead to destruction and death, the master had absolute authority, hence the title. However, before the advent of standing navies, civilian ships were often offered or impressed for use in transporting soldiers and their supplies from one place to another. When the captain of a company of soldiers brought the troops aboard for transport, he assumed military command of the ship, determining its destination and, if the ship engaged in hostilities at sea, directing the battle. In matters of sailing and maneuvering, though, the captain deferred to the master, who of course remained on board. (Before captain became a specific military rank, it designated a leader of roughly up to several hundred soldiers assembled for a specific battle or campaign. Much later, it became an official designation for a standing military unit of a circumscribed similar size.) As civilian ships were given long-term military roles, this division of responsibilities remained in effect: A captain had overall authority, but the master was responsibility for sailing operations. When permanent navies were established, roughly coincident with the establishment of standing armies, captain became a precise military rank in both settings. Master was also codified as the label for a specific posting; the master (sometimes called the sailing master) oversaw navigation and provisioning of the ship under direction of the captain, who by this time was a skilled mariner as well as a military leader. Naval captains and those commanding land-based units were and are not equivalent in rank: The largest ships in the Age of Sail eventually carried a thousand or more crew members, and ships often operated independently, requiring the captain to exercise great responsibility (and life-or-death authority), whereas an army captain commanded no more than a couple hundred men and was part of a more restrictive chain of command. Therefore, to this day, a navy captain holds a fairly high status in the naval hierarchy, whereas an army captain (or an officer with the equivalent rank in an air force or in the marines) has a comparatively minor role, though he or she must still demonstrate leadership skills. Even in the Middle Ages, a captain designated one or more lieutenants to assist him with command, to lead the company if he was absent or incapacitated, or to temporarily take responsibility for part of the unit. (The word lieutenant comes from the French phrase lieu tenant, meaning â€Å"deputy,† from words meaning â€Å"place† and â€Å"holder.†) Later, a ship was assigned one or more lieutenants depending on the size of the vessel. Meanwhile, master also briefly became a naval military rank below the rank of lieutenant, rather than a position, but it was phased out as naval vessels were increasingly powered by steam rather than sail. Other words that apply to naval command include commander, from an Old French word meaning â€Å"one who commands.† (The rank was originally styled â€Å"master and commander† to denote the commanding officer of a small vessel who doubled as the master, hence the Patrick O’Brian novel of that title and the related film starring Russell Crowe.) Commodore, the Dutch word derived from this term, came to apply to a captain given temporary command of a group of vessels and later became a specific rank above that of captain. (The similar term commandant is not a rank; it applies to an officer of any rank who commands a training facility or a prison.) Admiral, meanwhile, referring to a high-ranking naval officer in command of an entire navy or a fleet or major unit within one or the other, is from the Arabic word amir, meaning â€Å"military commander† (the source of emir, a modern word for an Arab leader) and, like captain, originally pertained to a land-based leader before it was applied to one who leads naval operations. On many modern civilian ships, the person in charge is officially referred to as the captain, whether or not there is a command hierarchy more or less based on naval tradition, though master is also common. In popular usage, however, captain came to prevail over master, so that, even now, the owner of a small pleasure craft will be referred to as â€Å"Captain† or â€Å"Skipper†; the latter word is derived from the Dutch word scipper, meaning â€Å"operator of a ship.† Skipper is also used formally to refer to the master of a small vessel such as a tugboat. Captain is used in other civilian command hierarchies, as in police and fire departments and the like, as well as to refer to the acknowledged leading athlete on a sports team, but master has not been adopted in such contexts from nautical usage. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Masters Degree or Master's Degree?"Latter," not "Ladder"The Difference Between "Phonics" and "Phonetics"

Reaction to Death With Dignity essays

Reaction to Death With Dignity essays Choice of Pysicain Assisted Sucide Should Be States It is clear from reading the Oregon Death with Dignity Act that those who drafted this legislation wanted to give the choice to individuals who were terminally ill as defined in the Act, to have the ability to end their life on their own terms. The intention of this Act is to give a person the ability to control their own death in which would without this alternative be controlled by their disease. I feel that by requiring two separate concurring opinions that conclude with the diagnosis of a terminal illness, and by requiring a psychological review to ensure the individual possess clear judgment, it is enough to classify this option as a medical treatment rather than a suicide. I categorize this as a treatment because I feel it is not entirely different than anything else a physician can offer to their patients who suffer from these conditions. Before the Act, physicians could only offer treatments which provided physical comfort to their patients during their decline in health. I believe this new option is a treatment that provides the patient with mental comfort by providing them the piece of mind that they can control the time and place of their death. An individual who chooses physical comfort is looking to be in the least amount of pain while living as long as their disease allows. A person who seeks the option offered in the Oregon Act is choosing the mental comfort of being able to die under the conditions which they themselves determine. Both of these options are reasonable, and should be available to all those who are faced with such a dilemma. Those who developed this option intended for the individuals who qualify to repeatedly have to request for the prescription with several applications and documents, ensuring that the patient is absolutely certain with their decision. The requirement of a psychological examination is extremely important because of the impact...

Unit 2 ip Presentation Essentials Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Unit 2 ip Presentation Essentials - Assignment Example Scientists believe that there should be some ways to produce more food to support all the people and considered artificial methods to produce food. A unique method known as genetically modified food is developed by the scientists that raised the amount of food produced by the farmers but many people are against the modifications in the food sector. However, modification in the food items is also brought by the environmental change and shortage or abundance of water resources. In the similar way, the utilization of toxic pesticides and inorganic fertilizers also become a reason in the modification of food products. The linkage between the global warming and the modification of bonds the human health. As the world’s food demand is increasing and the utilization of artificial methods is rising, the number of people that die with the lack of food is increasing (Kelly, 2012). The major cause is that the food producer is runs a business and in order to attain certain economic benefits in a short period of time, it become the necessity for the food produces to utilize the artificial methods to produce food. There is need to bring sustainability to the food industry. There is a need to plant vegetables, fruits and crops at homes, even a little effort can make a difference. The utilization of natural methods to produce food like the utilization of natural fertilizers like vegetable residue, dried leaves and wastes from humans and animals could be utilized as the natural fertilizer (Environment. nationalgeographic.com, 2012). Natural processes not only help the soil to retain its strength in retaining good minerals and fertilizers for the plant but also help the soil to retain water for longer periods. In this way, natural processes help to bring sustainability in the food sector. The major reason impacted the food is the increase in the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide that influenced the

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A critical evaluation of the role of Budgetting - Essay Example results in nothing more than dysfunctional behaviour has initially been proposed by Hope and Fraser (2003) as part of the Beyond Budgeting Round Table (BBRT). This report is a review of relevance of budgeting in contemporary business contexts and an attempt to suggest which one among ‘better budgeting’ or ‘beyond budgeting’ will be effective to the CFO of Halfords Group plc. This report is prepared to submit to the CFO as he asked me to review literatures and prepare a report based on ‘budgeting- lost relevance’ after he participated in a conference that made him concerned about the matter. In finance and accounting, budgeting is a formal plan expressed in monetary terms and is prepared in a current financial year to provide managers and other stakeholders with an estimate of the anticipated costs and revenues for the next financial year (Chandra, Menon and Mishra, 2007, p. 264). Traditionally, budgets served a number of useful purposes such as 1) planning annual business operations, 2) coordinating various activities in the organisation, 3) communicating these plans to various responsibility managers or departments, 4) motivating managers to achieve desired organisational goal, 5) controlling all activities in the firm and 6) evaluating managers’ performance (Drury, 2006, p. 426). Because of that budgeting looks both forward and backward, it identifies resources that the company is likely to generate and the need in its near future to serve as a measure of current and past performance of department and individual managers (Fabozzi and Drake, 2009, p. 334). Why budgeting has been traditionally considered as an effective strategic tool for management accounting was that it was nothing but a plan relating to future and it helped management take various critical decisions pertaining to strategic planning, budgetary planning and operational planning (Walker, 2006, p. 305). Budgeting has also played a very significant role in strategic and operational

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Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and Essay

Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development - Essay Example As technological change permeates our lives, it is essential for each individual to understand the forces underlying and unleashed by technological change in order to become better decision makers, managers, policy analysts, and researchers. Relationship between Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Development As Braunerhjelm points out, economists have undoubtedly made considerable advances during the last decades in understanding the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation, and growth, and have brought in more profound insights on how entrepreneurship, innovation, and growth are interrelated. According to him, the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation, and economic development can be identified from its most immediate foundation in simple perception, common sense, and a clear economic observation that performance to convert proposals into economic opportunities lies at the very core of entrepreneurship (2). Entrepreneurship can be stated as the foundation of innovation and revolution, and as such stimulates the development in efficiency and profitable competitiveness. Knowledge and flexibility are the two significant factors that are closely linked with entrepreneurship and have been noticed for their importance as measures for achieving competitiveness in this rapidly developing globalised economy. In the same way, development and growth of upcoming entrepreneurship brings chances for a country’s development within an intensified global competition due to the phenomena like globalisation and liberalisation, and modern technological innovations. According to Pirich et al, most economic, psychological and sociological research focus on the fact that entrepreneurship is a process, and not just a stagnant phenomenon and it is more than just a mechanical economic factor. Moreover, entrepreneurship is associated with choice-related issues and has a wide range of functional roles which involves coordination, innovation, uncertainty bearing, decision making resource allocation, capital supply, and ownership (14). Schumpeter holds the view that innovative entrepreneurs are the vehicles that can move the economy into development from a stagnant equilibrium, depending on the blending abilities of entrepreneurial individuals. In his opinion, â€Å"whatever the type, everyone is an entrepreneur only when he actually carries out new combinations and loses that character as soon as he has built up his business, when he settles down to running it as other people run their business† (Schumpeter, 78). Likewise, there has been a great deal of attention focused on studying various models of innovation throughout the recent decades to identify the significance of innovation with various institutions. The Economist (1999) (as cited in Pirich, et al) reports that innovation has turned out to be the industrial religion of the late 20th century, where business considers it to be the key to increase profits and market sh are and Governments generally select it while trying to fix the economy; moreover, the rhetoric of innovation has substituted the post-war language of welfare economics (15). The entrepreneur takes the place of the most essential agent in almost all of the production, distribution, and growth theories. Entrepreneurship is the driving force of economic growth and this concept suits best with the long waves theory of Joseph Schumpeter. According to Schumpeter,

Toyota Foundation in Toyota Motor Corporation Essay

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Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and Essay

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American Architecture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Acquisition in Multinational Coperation Essay Example for Free

Acquisition in Multinational Coperation Essay Purpose – This conceptual paper aims to draw upon recent complexity and organizational psychology literature to examine conï ¬â€šict episodes, exploring the limitations of the predominant research paradigm that treats conï ¬â€šict episodes as occurring in sequence, as discrete isolated incidents. Design/methodology/approach – The paper addresses a long-standing issue in conï ¬â€šict management research, which is that the predominant typology of conï ¬â€šict is confusing. The complexity perspective challenges the fundamental paradigm, which has dominated research in the conï ¬â€šict ï ¬ eld, in which conï ¬â€šict episodes occur in sequence and in isolation, with managers using one predominant form of conï ¬â€šict resolution behavior. Findings – The ï ¬ ndings are two-fold: ï ¬ rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conï ¬â€šicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors; and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Originality/value – This paper adds value to the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict theory by moving beyond two dimensions and exploring a sequential contingency perspective for conï ¬â€šict management within the organization. It argues that multiple conï ¬â€šict episodes can occur simultaneously, requiring managers to use differing behaviors for successful conï ¬â€šict management. Keywords Conï ¬â€šict management, Conï ¬â€šict resolution, Organizational conï ¬â€šict, Individual behaviour, Interpersonal relations Paper type Conceptual paper International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management Vol. 21 No. 2, 2010 pp. 186-201 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1044-4068 DOI 10.1108/10444061011037404 Introduction It is now over 40 years since Louis Pondy (1967) wrote his seminal article on conï ¬â€šict within the organization and its management and almost 20 years since his reï ¬â€šections on his earlier work were published (Pondy, 1989)[1]. In 1967 Pondy established what was for two decades the generally accepted paradigm of conï ¬â€šict: that conï ¬â€šict episodes occur as temporary disruptions to the otherwise cooperative relationships which make up the organization (Pondy, 1967). In his subsequent reï ¬â€šections on his earlier work and that of others, Pondy proposed that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent feature of organizational life, rather than an occasional breakdown of cooperation (Pondy, 1989). This radically challenged the previous paradigm. Indeed, Pondy (1989) even suggested that research into the phenomenon of cooperation within the organization could be beneï ¬ cial in providing further insight into conï ¬â€šict within the organization, implying that it was cooperation, not conï ¬â€šict, which was the anomalous state requiring investigation. Yet, for almost two decades, Pondy’s conceptualization of conï ¬â€šict as a natural state for the organization has remained largely unexplored despite the emergence of a complexity perspective which explores multiple elements of the conï ¬â€šict situation or cooperative state. One possible reason why Pondy’s challenge has not been answered is that some confusion has arisen over the terms and typologies used for the classiï ¬ cation of conï ¬â€šict episodes. Consequently, debates about conï ¬â€šict structure or composition have tended to dominate the research agenda. The potential for confusion arising from these various conï ¬â€šict classiï ¬ cations will be discussed in this paper. Where conï ¬â€šict management behaviors have been studied, researchers have tended to focus on a two-dimensional approach or â€Å"dual concern theory† model (Thomas, 1976) which suggests that individuals adopt conï ¬â€šict management behaviors based on their perceived self interests and those of others; i.e. concern for self (competitive behaviors) versus concern for other (accommodating behaviors). Although this approach to the research of conï ¬â€šict and its management ï ¬ ts well with Pondy’s (1967) original paradigm, it is challenged by the complexity perspective that has emerged in psychology research. The complexity perspective of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict maintains that interpersonal relationships are more complex than hitherto thought, and that the unfolding conï ¬â€šict is inï ¬â€šuenced by a wide variety of conditions. Moreover the complexity perspective encourages the consideration of simultaneous complexity (more than one event occurring simultaneously) and of how the mode of conï ¬â€šict management affects the outcomes (Munduate et al., 1999). This fresh perspective has enabled researchers to examine the point at which behavioral style is changed and the effect on the conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996) and to look at how different behaviors are combined (Janssen et al., 1999). With the recent developments in the complexity perspective of conï ¬â€šict management research (Van de Vliert et al., 1997; Munduate et al., 1999), the time has come to further explore the possible consequences of the complexity perspective: whether it is in fact the case that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent condition within the organization (Pondy, 1989); whether conï ¬â€šict episodes do not occur in isolation but occur frequently and simultaneously (Euwema et al., 2003); and whether complex sequences of adaptive behaviors are required to continually manage the constantly changing intraorganizational, conï ¬â€šict environment. Before we can do this, and to provide a common ground for discourse, we ï ¬ rst need to examine some of the theories around conï ¬â€šict typology that have arisen in the psychology and management literature and which may be the cause of some confusion. Conï ¬â€šict terms and typologies â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict† is a broad construct that has been studied extensively across several disciplines covering a wide range of social interactions. Previous conï ¬â€šict research has identiï ¬ ed four main levels of conï ¬â€šict in the context of human behavior and relationships as summarized by Lewecki et al. (2003): (1) Intergroup conï ¬â€šicts between groups of individuals which can range in size and complexity due to the many relationships involved, including international conï ¬â€šict between nations. (2) Intragroup or intraorganizational conï ¬â€šicts arising within smaller groups which comprise the organization. A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 187 IJCMA 21,2 188 (3) Interpersonal conï ¬â€šict; that is, conï ¬â€šict at an individual level, conï ¬â€šict between individuals, or conï ¬â€šict between an individual and a group. (4) Intrapersonal conï ¬â€šict on a personal level, where the conï ¬â€šict occurs in one’s own mind. Although these four levels of conï ¬â€šict all appear across both the psychology and management literature, it is the third level (interpersonal conï ¬â€šicts within the organization or the reactions an individual or group has to the perception that two parties have aspirations that cannot be achieved simultaneously) that has become the central ï ¬ eld of research within the organization (Putnem and Poole, 1987). In 1992, Thomas proposed a simpliï ¬ ed deï ¬ nition of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict as the process which begins when an individual or group feels negatively affected by another individual or group. The conï ¬â€šict consists of a perception of barriers to achieving one’s goals (Thomas, 1992). More recently, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict has been deï ¬ ned as an individual’s perceptions of incompatibilities, differences in views or interpersonal incompatibility (Jehn, 1997). Conï ¬â€šict at this level has mostly been seen as adversarial and as having a negative effect upon relationships (Ford et al., 1975). These deï ¬ nitions presuppose that an opposition or incompatibility is perceived by both parties, that some interaction is taking place, and that both parties are able to inï ¬â€šuence or get involved – that is. that there is some degree of interdependence (Medina et al., 2004). Interpersonal conï ¬â€šict could arise within organizations where, for example, customer-facing departments such as Sales make promises to customers that other departments then have to deliver. In this domain of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, both Pondy’s (1966, 1967) work and recent developments adopting the complexity perspective are of particular interest This broad area of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict has been further subdivided into two types: relationship conï ¬â€šict and task conï ¬â€šict. Relationship conï ¬â€šict arises between the actors through their subjective emotional positions, whereas task conï ¬â€šict relates primarily to the more objective tasks or issues involved (Reid et al., 2004). A series of studies conï ¬ rmed this duality between relationship and task. Wall and Nolan (1986) identiï ¬ ed â€Å"people oriented† versus â€Å"task oriented† conï ¬â€šict. In the early to mid-1990s Priem and Price (1991), Pinkley and Northcraft (1994), Jehn (1995) and Sessa (1996) all identiï ¬ ed â€Å"relationship† and â€Å"task† as discrete aspects of conï ¬â€šict. The picture became rather more complicated in the late 1990s. In 1995 Amason et al. redeï ¬ ned conï ¬â€šict types as â€Å"affective† and â€Å"cognitive† and in 1999 Van de Vliert further redeï ¬ ned these types as â€Å"task† and â€Å"person† conï ¬â€šict. In working toward a more comprehensive model of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, Jameson (1999) suggested three dimensions for conï ¬â€šict: (1) content; (2) relational; and (3) situational. The content dimension encompasses the previously discussed conï ¬â€šict types (affective, cognitive, relationship etc) while the relational dimension considers the subjective, perceived variables within the relationships of the actors involved: . trust; . status; . . . . A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory seriousness; degree of interdependence; record of success; and the number of actors involved. The situational dimension examines the variables which may be most relevant in selecting an appropriate conï ¬â€šict management strategy. These include time pressure, the potential impact of the conï ¬â€šict episode, the degree of escalation and the range of options available in the management of the conï ¬â€šict episode (Jameson, 1999). Meanwhile, Sheppard (1992) criticized the multiplicity of terms that were being used to describe types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, and the needless confusion that this caused. The result of the many approaches described above is that there is no general model for the typology of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict within the organization. In the absence of such a model, other researchers have taken different approaches, using the antecedents of the conï ¬â€šict episode to describe conï ¬â€šict types. Examples of this proliferation include role conï ¬â€šict (Walker et al., 1975), gender conï ¬â€šict (Cheng, 1995) and goal conï ¬â€šict (Tellefsen and Eyuboglu, 2002). This proliferation of terms or typologies has unsurprisingly led to confusion, most noticeably with the term â€Å"interpersonal conï ¬â€šict† being used to describe purely relationship or emotional conï ¬â€šict (Bradford et al., 2004) or conï ¬â€šict being deï ¬ ned in terms of emotion only, adding to the wide range of terms already used (Bodtker and Jameson, 2001). Thus, at a time when international, interorganizational, intraorganizational, interpersonal and intrapersonal conï ¬â€šicts are being extensively studied with conï ¬â€šict deï ¬ ned and operationalized in a variety of ways, no widely accepted and consistent model has emerged to shape conï ¬â€šict research (Reid et al., 2004). Table I summarizes the many different conï ¬â€šict typologies that have been proposed. Table I illustrates that relationship and task conï ¬â€šict are almost universally accepted as distinct types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict by psychology and management researchers. Date Author(s) Conï ¬â€šict typology 1986 1991 1994 1995 1995 1996 1996 1997 1999 1999 2000 2000 2002 2003 2003 2004 2004 2005 Wall and Nolan Priem and Price Pinkley and Northcraft Jehn Amason et al. Sessa Amason Amason and Sapienza Jameson Janssen et al. Friedman et al. Jehn and Chatman Tellefsen and Eyuboglu Bradford et al. De Dreu and Weingart Reid et al. Tidd et al. Guerra et al. People oriented, task oriented Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Cognitive, affective Task, person oriented Affective, cognitive Affective, cognitive Content, relational, situational Task, person oriented Relationship, task Task, relationship, process Goal conï ¬â€šicts Interpersonal, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task 189 Table I. A summary of the typologies of conï ¬â€šict IJCMA 21,2 190 In addition, many researchers have identiï ¬ ed a third type of conï ¬â€šict which relates to the environment in which managers operate, described as situational conï ¬â€šict ( Jameson, 1999) or process conï ¬â€šict ( Jehn and Chatman, 2000). We believe that a consistent conï ¬â€šict typology is called for, to aid future research into the complex nature of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict. In this paper, we propose that future researchers should recognize three types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. However, since the terms â€Å"relationship† and â€Å"task† are vulnerable to misinterpretation we advocate using the terms affective and cognitive (following Amason, 1996 and Amason and Sapienza, 1997), in conjunction with process (Jehn and Chatman, 2000), to describe the three types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. These terms, which reï ¬â€šect the more speciï ¬ c terminology used in the psychology literature, are deï ¬ ned in Table II. As Table II shows, the t ypology we propose is as follows. Affective Conï ¬â€šict is a term describing conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships including such dimensions as trust, status and degree of interdependence (Amason and Sapienza, 1997). Cognitive Conï ¬â€šict describes conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task, roles and functions. Process Conï ¬â€šict relates to conï ¬â€šicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture (Amason and Sapienza, 1997; Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Using this typology for conï ¬â€šict between individuals or groups of individuals within the organization avoids confusion over the use of the terms â€Å"interpersonal†, â€Å"person† or â€Å"relationship† often used when referring to affective conï ¬â€šict, while task conï ¬â€šict is clearly distinguished from process conï ¬â€šict, addressing all the issues previously outlined. These terms will therefore be used throughout the remainder of t his paper. Having argued that taxonomic confusion has hindered conï ¬â€šict research through the misuse of existing taxonomies (Bradford et al., 2004) or where language has resulted in the use of different terms to describe the same conï ¬â€šict type (see Table I), we now move on to consider the implications or consequences of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict and whether it is always negative or can have positive consequences (De Dreu, 1997). Consequences of conï ¬â€šict: functional or dysfunctional? Some researchers exploring attitudes towards conï ¬â€šict have considered the consequences of conï ¬â€šict for individual and team performance (Jehn, 1995) and have found that interpersonal conï ¬â€šict can have either functional (positive) or dysfunctional (negative) outcomes for team and individual performance (e.g. Amason, 1996). Moreover, the consequences of conï ¬â€šict can be perceived and felt in different ways by different actors experiencing the conï ¬â€šict episode (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Thus, conï ¬â€šict is situationally and perceptually relative. Conï ¬â€šict type Affective Table II. A proposed taxonomy of conï ¬â€šict Deï ¬ nition Conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships with other individuals or groups Cognitive Conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task Process Conï ¬â€šicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture The traditional view of conï ¬â€šict takes the view that conï ¬â€šict exists in opposition to co-operation and that conï ¬â€šict is wholly dysfunctional, putting the focus on resolution rather than management (e.g. Pondy, 1966). This perspective can be traced forward to more recent work. Where conï ¬â€šict is deï ¬ ned as the process which begins when one person or group feels negatively affected by another (Thomas, 1992), there is an implication of obstruction to either party achieving their goals, which is readily interpreted negatively. This can result in conï ¬â€šict avoidance or suppression of conï ¬â€šict management behavior, leading to perceived negative consequences on team or individual performance (De Dreu, 1997). Negatively-perceived conï ¬â€šict episodes can increase tension and antagonism between individuals and lead to a lack of focus on the required task (Saavedra et al., 1993; Wall and Nolan, 1986) while avoidance and suppression can also have long term nega tive consequences such as stiï ¬â€šing creativity, promoting groupthink and causing an escalation in any existing conï ¬â€šict (De Dreu, 1997). Not surprisingly, where interdependence is negative (where one party wins at the expense of the other although they have some dependency in their relationship) any conï ¬â€šict will be viewed negatively (Janssen et al., 1999). The perception of conï ¬â€šict will also be negative where the conï ¬â€šict is personal, resulting in personality clashes, increased stress and frustration. This type of relationship conï ¬â€šict can impede the decision-making process as individuals focus on the personal aspects rather than the task related issues (Jehn, 1995). In contrast to the somewhat negative perception of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict outlined above, more recent conï ¬â€šict management theory has begun to suggest that certain types of conï ¬â€šict can have a positive effect upon relationships and that the best route to this outcome is through acceptance of, and effective management of, inevitable conï ¬â€šict, rather than through conï ¬â€šict avoidance or suppression (De Dreu, 1997). When individuals are in conï ¬â€šict they have to address major issues, be more creative, and see different aspects of a problem. These challenges can mitigate groupthink and stimulate creativity (De Dreu, 1997). Naturally, where there is high positive interdependence (an agreeable outcome for both parties), the conï ¬â€šict episode will be viewed much more positively (Janssen et al., 1999). Moreover, Jehn (1995) has suggested that task- and issue-based cognitive con ï ¬â€šict can have a positive effect on team performance. Groups who experience cognitive conï ¬â€šict have a greater understanding of the assignments at hand and are able to make better decisions in dealing with issues as they arise (Simons and Peterson, 2000). For example, research has shown that, when individuals are exposed to a â€Å"devil’s advocate†, they are able to make better judgments than those not so exposed (Schwenk, 1990). Schulz-Hardt et al. (2002) suggested that groups make better decisions where they started in disagreement rather than agreement. In these examples, conï ¬â€šict has a functional (useful and positive) outcome. We have argued that the notion of functional conï ¬â€šict has shifted the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict research away from conï ¬â€šict resolution and towards consideration of the management behaviors which can be adopted in dealing with conï ¬â€šict in order to gain the best possible outcome (De Dreu, 1997; Euwema et al., 2003 ). Next, we examine research into conï ¬â€šict management behaviors and explore some of the managerial tools that have been developed to help managers to deal with intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. Conï ¬â€šict management behaviors Conï ¬â€šict management can be deï ¬ ned as the actions in which a person typically engages, in response to perceived interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, in order to achieve a desired goal A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 191 IJCMA 21,2 192 (Thomas, 1976). Demonstrably, conï ¬â€šict management pays off: previous research has indicated that it is the way in which conï ¬â€šict episodes are addressed which determines the outcome (Amason, 1996). However, there is disagreement between researchers as to the degree to which managers can and do adopt different conï ¬â€šict management behaviors. Previous research has considered three different approaches: the â€Å"one best way† perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984); the contingency or situational perspective (Thomas, 1992; Munduate et al., 1999; Nicotera, 1993); and the complexity or conglomerated perspective (Van de Vliert et al., 1999; Euwema et al., 2003). Arguably the simplest perspective on conï ¬â€šict management behavior is the â€Å"one best way† perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984), which agues that one conï ¬â€šict management style or behavior (collaboration) is more effective than any other. However, it argues that individuals have a parti cular preferred behavioral predisposition to the way in which they handle conï ¬â€šict. Thus, from the â€Å"one best way† perspective, the conï ¬â€šict-avoiding manager may have a behavioral predisposition to avoidance strategies, whereas the accommodating manager may prefer accommodating solutions. In this paradigm, the most constructive solution is considered to be collaboration, since collaboration is always positively interdependent – it has a joint best outcome, generally described as â€Å"win/win† (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). The â€Å"one best way† approach suggests that a more aggressive, competitive, negatively interdependent approach (in fact, any conï ¬â€šict management approach other than collaborative) can result in suboptimal outcomes (Janssen et al., 1999). However, the â€Å"one best way† perspective raises more questions than it answers. It does not explain how managers are able to collaborate if they have a different behavioral predisposition, nor does it provide evidence that collaboration always produces the best outcome (Thomas, 1992). A more general problem with the â€Å"one best way† approach is that it may not be very useful: if managers truly have little or no control over their approach to conï ¬â€šict management, the practical applications are limited. The â€Å"one best way† perspective does not consider the passage of time, that behaviors could be changed or modiï ¬ ed during any interaction, nor the effect any previous encounters may have on the current experience (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Moving beyond the â€Å"one best way† perspective, in which only collaborative behaviors are considered to provide the most desirable outcome, the contingency perspective maintains that the optimal conï ¬â€šict management behavior depends on the speciï ¬ c conï ¬â€šict situation, and that what is appropriate in one situation may not be appropriate in another (Thomas, 1992). In this paradigm, the best approach is dependent upon the particular set of circumstances. The implications, which are very different to the â€Å"one best way† perspective, are that individuals can and should select the conï ¬â€šict management behavior that is most likely to produce the desired outcome. Thus, conï ¬â€šict management behaviors are regarded as a matter of preference (rather than innate, as in the â€Å"one best way† view), and the outcome is dependent on the selection of the most appropriate mode of conï ¬â€šict management behavior. Until recently, conï ¬â€šict research has been heavily inï ¬â€šuenced by the â€Å"one best way† and contingency perspectives, focusing on the effectiveness of a single mode of conï ¬â€šict management behavior (primarily collaboration) during a single conï ¬â€šict episode (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984). Thus the â€Å"one best way† and contingency perspectives do not necessarily o ffer a real-world view in which managers both can and do change their behaviors: adapting to the situation; perhaps trying different approaches to break a deadlock or to improve their bargaining position; taking into account changing circumstances in the microenvironment; and the subsequent inï ¬â€šuence upon the actions of individuals involved in any conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). A fresh approach is provided by the complexity perspective, which characterizes conï ¬â€šicts as being dynamic and multi-dimensional. In such circumstances, the best behavioral style in dealing with any one conï ¬â€šict episode may vary during, or between, conï ¬â€šict episodes (Medina et al., 2004; Nicotera, 1993). For conï ¬â€šict in a complex world, neither the â€Å"one best way† nor the contingency perspective would necessarily produce optimal results. If conï ¬â€šict does not occur discretely and individually (Pondy, 1992a), existing approaches may not describe the world as managers actually experience it. Arguably, these approaches have artiï ¬ cially limited conï ¬â€šict research to a ï ¬â€šat, two-dimensional model. To address the shortcomings of traditional research and to incorporate the complexity perspective into conï ¬â€šict management theory, we need to move beyond two dimensions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Beyond two dimensions of conï ¬â€šict management theory Recent work by Van de Vliert et al. (1997) and Medina et al. (2004) has expanded current theory through consideration of the complexity perspective. The complexity perspective argues that any reaction to a conï ¬â€šict episode consists of multiple behavioral components rather than one single conï ¬â€šict management behavior. In the complexity perspective, using a mixture of accommodating, avoiding, competing, compromising and collaborating behaviors throughout the conï ¬â€šict episode is considered to be the rule rather than the exception (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). To date, studies taking a complexity approach to conï ¬â€šict management have adopted one of three different complexity perspectives. The ï ¬ rst examines simultaneous complexity and how different combinations of behaviors affect the outcome of the conï ¬â€šict (Munduate et al., 1999). The second complexity approach focuses on the point of behavioral change and the outcome, examining either the behavioral phases through which the participants of a conï ¬â€šict episode pass, or apply temporal complexity to look at the point at which behavioral style changes and the effect on the conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). The third approach is the sequential complexity or conglomerated perspective, which is concerned with the different modes of conï ¬â€šict management behavior, how they are combined, and at what point they change during the interaction. The application of the complexity perspective to conï ¬â€šict management research has revealed that managers use more than the ï ¬ ve behaviors suggested by the â€Å"one best way† perspective to manage conï ¬â€šict. In their study of conglomerated conï ¬â€šict management behavior, Euwema et al. (2003) argued that the traditional approach under-represents the individual’s assertive modes of behavior and have as a result added â€Å"confronting† and â€Å"process controlling†, making seven possible behaviors: (1) competing; (2) collaborating; (3) avoiding; (4) compromising; (5) accommodating; A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 193 IJCMA 21,2 194 (6) confronting; and (7) process controlling. Weingart et al. (1990) identiï ¬ ed two types of sequential pattern: Reciprocity, responding to the other party with the same behavior; and Complementarity, responding with an opposing behavior. Applying a complexity perspective, the effectiveness of complementarity or reciprocity behaviors will be contingent upon the situation, the micro-environment, the number of conï ¬â€šict episodes, and the types of conï ¬â€šict present. The sequential pattern may in itself be complex, being dependent both upon the current situation and on varying behaviors throughout the interaction. A further, often unrecognized implication of complexity in conï ¬â€šict is that each conï ¬â€šict episode could be unique, being composed of different proportions of each of the affective, cognitive and process conï ¬â€šict types (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). The implication for conï ¬â€šict management strategy and the choice of the most appropriate behavior is immense. Therefore, a new perspective is needed, in which conï ¬â€šict and the response to conï ¬â€šict is viewed as dynamic and changing over time, with each conï ¬â€šict episode having a unique composition requiring a speciï ¬ c but ï ¬â€šexible approach in order to obtain the best possible outcome. We propose that this might result in a manager changing behavior during a conï ¬â€šict episode, or indeed a manager adopting different behaviors for a number of conï ¬â€šict episodes occurring simultaneously. In the next section, we take all these complex factors into account and propose a single, dynamic and comprehensive model of conï ¬â€šict management behavior. Multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes We have shown that the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict has become entangled in multiple terms and that research into conï ¬â€šict management is struggling to reconcile two-dimensional models with the more complex situation encountered in the real world. A model is needed which considers the complexity of conï ¬â€šict episodes and separates conï ¬â€šict antecedents from conï ¬â€šict types, recognizing that conï ¬â€šict can relate to emotions and situations which have common antecedents. We propose that the way forward is to expand the conglomerated perspective into a sequential contingency perspective, in which the sequence of conï ¬â€šict management behaviors adopted is dependent upon a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors in the micro-environment, the number of conï ¬â€šict episodes being dealt with, their composition, and changes in the behaviors of the actors involved. A sequential contingency perspective The sequential contingency perspective for intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict proposes the adoption of an alternative paradigm which is that conï ¬â€šict is ever-present and ever-changing in terms of its nature or composition; and that it is the way in which these continuous conï ¬â€šicts is managed which determines the outcome of any conï ¬â€šict episode and the nature of any subsequent conï ¬â€šicts. Figure 1 provides a visualization of Pondy’s (1992b) postmodern paradigm of conï ¬â€šict and provides a foundation for the investigation of complex, multiple, simultaneous, intraorganizational conï ¬â€šicts. This conceptual visualization of conï ¬â€šict within the organization provides a three-dimensional representation of conï ¬â€šict from the paradigm that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent feature of organizational life. It shows how, at any one given point in time, A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 195 Figure 1. A conceptual visualization of multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict there can be a number of conï ¬â€šict episodes experienced (y axis), each with different intensities (z axis) and duration (x axis). In addition, we have argued that each conï ¬â€šict episode will have a unique composition, being made up of different proportions of cognitive, affective and process elements. The implications for conï ¬â€šict management theory are twofold: ï ¬ rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conï ¬â€šicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors; and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Using this three-dimensional conceptual visualization of conï ¬â€šict within the organization we propose a sequential contingency model for managing interpersonal conï ¬â€šict within the organization (Figure 2). The basic elements of the framework in Figure 2 consider all the dimensions of conï ¬â€šict and its management as previously discussed: . the conï ¬â€šict episode characteristics, the type and composition of any conï ¬â€šict episode encountered (Amason, 1996; Jehn, 1995; Jehn, 1997; Pinkley and Northcraft, 1994); . the characteristics of the relationship(s) (Jehn, 1995); . the characteristics of the individuals involved; . the conï ¬â€šict management behaviors; and . the outcome of previous conï ¬â€šict episodes (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). IJCMA 21,2 196 Figure 2. A sequential contingency model for managing intra-organizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict The basic postulate of the model is that conï ¬â€šict is a constant and inherent condition of the organization (that is, that conï ¬â€šict episodes do not occur as isolated, anomalous incidents). Additionally, the effectiveness of the conï ¬â€šict management behaviors in terms of its functionality or dysfunctionality is contingent upon, and moderated by, the nature of the conï ¬â€šict, the characteristics of the individuals and relationships involved, and experience of previous conï ¬â€šict. Thus, this model provides a framework for dealing with multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes moving beyond the tradition two-dimensional approach. Future research To date there has been little empirical research into the degree to which individuals are able to adapt their behavior during an interaction, or on the value of the complexity perspective in dealing with complex intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict. The future research agenda needs to explore conï ¬â€šict through Pondy’s (1992b) alternative paradigm and expand on these theoretical ï ¬ ndings by investigating intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict in a number of ways. We therefore set out a research agenda framed in terms of four research propositions. First, taking the sequential contingency perspective and adopting Pondy’s (1989) alternative paradigm for conï ¬â€šict within the organization, research is needed to establish the occurrence of conï ¬â€šict. Pondy (1992b) argues that, rather than a sequence of discrete isolated incidents, conï ¬â€šict is an inherent condition of social interaction within the organization and that conï ¬â€šict episodes occur simultaneously not sequentially. This would imply that: P1a. Conï ¬â€šict is a constant condition of interorganizational, interpersonal relationships. A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory P1b. Multiple conï ¬â€šict episodes occur simultaneously. P1c. Conï ¬â€šict episodes are complex, having differing compositions of affective, cognitive and process elements which change over time. The complexity perspective recognizes that different conï ¬â€šict situations call for different management behaviors (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). This implies that managers can call upon a much wider range of approaches to conï ¬â€šict management than previously thought. Moreover there is a further implication, which is that managers are able to adapt their behavior during conï ¬â€šict episodes. Thus: P2a. Managers use different behaviors to manage multiple conï ¬â€šicts at any one time. P2b. Managers change their behavior over time during the same conï ¬â€šict episode. A substantial branch of recent conï ¬â€šict management research has focused on the outcomes of conï ¬â€šict and has suggested that not all conï ¬â€šict is negative (De Dreu, 1997; Simons and Peterson, 2000; Schultz-Hardt et al., 2002; Schwenk, 1990). Given this, we need a greater understanding of the effect that the behavior adopted has on the conï ¬â€šict experienced, whether it mitigated or agitated the situation, and the consequences for any subsequent conï ¬â€šict (Amason, 1996). Thus: P3a. The behaviors that managers use affect the outcome of the conï ¬â€šict. P3b. The behaviors that managers use affect subsequent conï ¬â€šicts. Finally, re-visiting Pondy’s (1989) alternative paradigm and incorporating the additional perspectives that come from consideration of conï ¬â€šict outcomes and the application of the complexity perspective, we argue that more research is needed into the relationship between the behaviors that managers adopt and whether these behaviors represent the conscious adaptation of an optimal approach to conï ¬â€šict management. Thus: P4. Conï ¬â€šict management involves adapting a set of behaviors through which a degree of co-operation is maintained, as opposed to the use of behavior(s) which resolve(s) discrete isolated incidents of conï ¬â€šict. Our purpose in setting out a new model and research agenda for conï ¬â€šict management research, together with a set of detailed research propositions, is to move the ï ¬ eld beyond the consideration of conï ¬â€šict episodes as discrete, isolated incidents and to encourage the investigation of different behaviors in different circumstances and their effectiveness. Future research needs to consider the complexity of conï ¬â€šict and adopt a research paradigm which considers the behavioral strategies within long term complex interpersonal relationships. Conclusion This paper has offered four contributions to the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict and conï ¬â€šict management. The ï ¬ rst is the clariï ¬ cation of conï ¬â€šict typologies set out in Table II. The 197 IJCMA 21,2 198 second contribution is the notion that business managers handle multiple and simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes that require different approaches to resolving them, so that the existing models proposed for conï ¬â€šict management are unlikely to chime with their actual experience. The third contribution is to map this in the form of a new theoretical model for conï ¬â€šict management (Figure 2). The fourth contribution is to use this theoretical model to set out a set of research propositions to shape research that will shed light on the real conï ¬â€šicts that managers have to face. Just 40 years on, and intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict theory itself appears to be in conï ¬â€šict. 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(1990), â€Å"Tactical behavior and negotiation outcomes†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 7-31. Further reading Amason, A.C., Hochwarter, W.A., Thompson, K.R. and Harrison, A.W. (1995), â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict: an important dimension in successful management teams†, Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 20-35. Blake, R.R. and Mouton, J.S. (1964), The Managerial Grid, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX. De Dreu, C. and Weingart, L.R. (2003), â€Å"Task versus relationship conï ¬â€šict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: a meta-analysis†, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88 No. 4, pp. 741-9. Deutsch, M. (1973), The Resolution of Conï ¬â€šict, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. Friedman, R., Tidd, S., Currall, S. and Tsai, J. (2000), â€Å"What goes around comes around: the impact of personal conï ¬â€šict style on work conï ¬â€šict and stress†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 32-55. Guerra, M.J., Martinez, I., Munduate, L. and Medina, F.J. (2005), â€Å"A contingency perspective on the study of the consequences of conï ¬â€šict types: the role of organizational culture†, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 157-76. Lewicki, R.J. and Sheppard, B.H. (1985), â€Å"Choosing how to intervene: factors affecting the use of process and outcome control in third party dispute resolution†, Journal of Occupational Behavior, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 49-64. Tidd, S.T., McIntyre, H. and Friedman, R.A. (2004), â€Å"The importance of role ambiguity and trust in conï ¬â€šict perception: unpacking the task conï ¬â€šict to relationship conï ¬â€šict linkage†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 364-84. About the authors  ´ James Speakman is Assistant Professor of International Negotiation at IESEG Business School, a member of Catholic University of Lille, where his attentions are focused on sales and negotiation. After working for 16 years in key account management sales he completed his PhD research at Cranï ¬ eld School of Management, where, using the Critical Incident Technique with an Interpretive Framework for coding to investigate intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict and the behavioral sequences adopted in the management of these complex interpersonal, intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict episodes. Other research interests include personal selling, past, present and future, where he conducted the US research for a multinational study on the future of personal selling and negotiation in context where his research interests include multi-cultural negotiation. James Speakman is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [emailprotected] Lynette Ryals specializes in key account management and marketing portfolio management, particularly in the area of customer proï ¬ tability. She is a Registered Representative of the London Stock Exchange and a Fellow of the Society of Investment Professionals. She is the Director of Cranï ¬ eld’s Key Account Management Best Practice Research Club, Director of the Demand Chain Management community and a member of Cranï ¬ eld School of Management’s Governing Executive. To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [emailprotected] Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 201